English Usage, Style & Composition
Please note: Through the following examples, italics are used to highlight the word or phrase in question, and not to indicate that the word or phrase should be italicized.
| academic titles | Capitalize titles before a name.
Duke University President Vincent E. Price Trinity College Dean Valerie Ashby Lowercase after a name or when used alone. Vincent E. Price, the president of Duke University Valerie Ashby, dean of Trinity College Exceptions are names of chaired professorships. Alice Mary Baldwin Professor of History William H. Chafe and William H. Chafe, Alice Mary Baldwin Professor of History Doctor, M.D., Ph.D. — See entry here. For news releases, only use Dr. before the name of an M.D.: Dr. Mary Smith wrote a book. (AP does not use Dr. before the name of someone with a Ph.D.) |
| affect, effect | Affect, the noun, describes an emotion, and is used mainly in psychology. AP style says to avoid using “affect” as a noun.
The patient showed little affect. Affect, the verb, means to influence. His illness affected his grades. Effect, the noun, means result or outcome. His illness had an effect on his grades. Effect, the verb, means to bring about, to create. The department chair effected big changes. |
| alumnus, etc. | An alumnus is a male graduate, an alumna a female graduate. Alumni are both male graduates and male and female graduates combined. Alumnae are female graduates.
The same endings apply for emeritus, meaning a retired faculty member. |
| American Indians | The AP Stylebook suggests that this usage is preferable to Native Americans, since the ancestors of American Indians migrated to North America from Asia. |
| among, between | Between introduces two items, among more than two.
The applicant had to decide among Duke, Harvard and Princeton. The applicant had to choose between Duke and Princeton. Pronouns following these prepositions are in the objective case. The choice was between us and them. |
| capitalization | Avoid unnecessary capitals.
Capitalize: proper nouns: James B. Duke proper names: Duke University, the Eno River popular names: the Bull City, the Triangle titles (see Academic Titles, above, and Titles, below): “Dear Old Duke” University, by itself, meaning Duke, is never capitalized. President Price described the university’s master plan. Faculty is not capitalized unless it’s part of a proper name: Duke Faculty Commons; The faculty agenda includes …. |
| carat, caret, karat | A carat is a measure of weight of precious stones. A caret is a proofreader’s symbol, indicating where words or letters are to be inserted. A karat is a measure of the portion of pure gold in an alloy. |
| collective nouns | Nouns and proper nouns denoting units (class, choir, committee, fraternity, orchestra, team, Duke, Microsoft) are singular and take singular verbs and pronouns.
The Arts & Sciences Council adjourned for the summer. It meets again in September. The team is on a road trip. It plays tonight in Atlanta. However, team names and band names take plural verbs and pronouns. The Beatles remain the world’s most influential band. The Blue Devils won last night. They dominated on defense. |
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| commas in a series | Use a comma after each item in a series except before the conjunction (unless the last item includes a conjunction.)
Example: The exception to the rule is if the last item in the series includes a conjunction. In this instance, use a comma after each item in the series: I had orange juice, toast, and ham and eggs for breakfast. |
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| compose, comprise | Compose, in the passive voice, means to be made up of.
Duke University is composed of nine schools. Comprise, best used only in the active voice, means to contain or include. Duke University comprises nine schools. |
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| compound nouns | When in doubt whether a noun is open (half note, half brother), closed (halfback, halftone), or hyphenated (half-moon, half-life), consult a dictionary. (Also see Prefixes, below.) Some examples: | |||
| African-American Afro-American attorney general blue green bookkeeping coal mining crosswalk decision maker decision making ex-president first-grader French Canadian full moon half-century half-dollar headache, toothache Italian-American key of B minor |
key of B-flat key of F-sharp key of G major Latin American mid-Atlantic midsummer Native American near miss northeast notebook, textbook one-half, one-eighth oversight policymaker president-elect quasi corporation self-knowledge vice chairman vice president vice provost |
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| dean’s list | Always lowercase;
Example: |
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| disc, disk | computer disk or diskette floppy disk disc jockey laserdisc videodisc |
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| disinterested, uninterested | Disinterested means impartial, uninterested means lacking in interest. | |||
| due to | Due is an adjective that follows the verb to be or modifies a particular noun.
The cancellation was due to snow. Cancellations due to snow disrupted the semester. It should not be used in adverbial phrases to mean because of. Instead of: Due to snow, classes were canceled. Use: Because of snow, classes were canceled. |
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| Duke’s units, official names | Arts & Sciences and Trinity College
Divinity School Duke University Health System (lowercase “health system” if on its own) The Fuqua School of Business Graduate School Nicholas School of the Environment Pratt School of Engineering Sanford School of Public Policy School of Law School of Medicine School of Nursing Undergraduate women who attended Duke between 1930 and 1972 were students in the Woman’s College, not the Women’s College. See also: Schools and class years, below. |
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| foreign words and phrases |
Foreign words and phrases found in a standard English dictionary are not italicized: | |||
| al-Qaida
dolce vita fait accompli hacienda jihad kibitz |
mah-jongg
mea culpa troika tsunami Nouns that in German would be capitalized are in English lowercase: doppelgänger or doppelganger, schadenfreude, weltschmerz. |
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| full time, part time | Hyphenate the adjective, not the noun.
Full-time employees work full time. Part-time employees work part time. |
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| fundraising, fundraiser | One word in all cases.
The Campaign for Duke was a fundraising effort. Fundraising is important to the university’s future. |
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| handicap, disability | Please refer to people with disabilities or disabled rather than to the handicapped. | |||
| he or she, his or her | Using he or she and his or her to be fair to both genders can be awkward. It is often simpler to make the noun plural.
Instead of: Use: |
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| historic, history | When the h in these words is pronounced, the indefinite article should be a:
a historic moment |
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| hopefully | This adverb means in a hopeful manner.
The students waited hopefully for tickets. It should not be used to mean it is hoped. Instead of: Use: |
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| hurricanes | All hurricanes take an indefinite pronoun.
Hurricane Fran hit Durham in 1996. It (not she) caused extensive flooding. |
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| hyphenation, em dash | Compound modifiers before nouns are hyphenated.
The trustees approved a long-term strategic plan. Exceptions: Compounds with very and with adverbs ending in –ly. A D is a very low grade. A D is not an easily forgotten grade. Compound modifiers after the verb to be are hyphenated. The strategic plan is to be a long-term document.
Use an em dash to denote an abrupt change in thought in a sentence or an emphatic pause. Use two hyphens and include a space before and after each: This is excellent — as usual — so we will take it. |
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| impact | Impact is a noun.
The team’s losing record had an impact on attendance. Its use as a verb meaning affect or influence is common, but should be avoided. Instead of: Use: |
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| imply, infer | Speakers and writers imply, listeners and readers infer. | |||
| institutes | The seven Duke University institutes and their affiliated centers contribute problem-focused, interdisciplinary research and education, and generate knowledge in the service of society through initiation and facilitation of collaborations and programming. More information is at http://interdisciplinary.duke.edu/institutes/index.php
Duke Global Health Institute, Duke Institute for Brain Sciences, Institute for Genome Sciences and Policy, John Hope Franklin Humanities Institute, Kenan Institute for Ethics, Nicholas Institute for Environmental Policy Solutions, Social Science Research Institute |
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| internet, web, etc. | The following capitalizations, spellings and hyphenations are recommended:
app |
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| Iran, Iraq | Iran is not an Arab nation. Its people are Persian, Azerbaijani, Kurdish and other ethnic groups. The principal language is Farsi, an Indo-European language, also known as Persian, that is written with Arabic characters. Ninety percent of Iranians are Shiite Muslims, 10 percent Sunni Muslims.
Iraq is an Arab nation. The principal language is Iraqi, a dialect of Arabic. Sixty-five percent of Iraqis are Shiite Muslims, 30 percent Sunni Muslims. The Kurds, Sunni Muslims who speak a dialect of Farsi, are a large minority in both countries. |
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| italics, quotation marks | AP does not italicize words in stories. Composition titles of created works, i.e., books, movies, operas, plays, songs, television programs, and works of art are put in quotation marks.
In general, do not use italics or quotation marks for emphasis or to suggest irony or special usage: Some students questioned whether the painting should be considered “art.” In particular, do not use italics or quotation marks around clichés or figures of speech: The tuition increase will have an impact on the university’s “bottom line.” Nicknames are enclosed in quotation marks. Harold “Spike” Yoh, former chairman of Duke’s Board of Trustees.
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| Kmart, Wal-Mart, Hewlett-Packard, Packard Bell, etc. | When in doubt about the spelling and punctuation of company names, check with the press relations department at corporate headquarters. Even official websites may contain errors. | |||
| lay, lie | Lay (past tense: laid; past participle: laid; present participle: laying) is an action verb meaning to put or place; it takes a direct object.
The student lays down his pencil. The student laid down his pencil. He has laid down his pencil. He is laying down his pencil. Lie (past tense: lay; past participle: lain; present participle: lying) means to be or stay at rest horizontally. It cannot take an object. The pencil lies on the desk. The pencil lay on the desk. The pencil has lain on the desk. The pencil is lying on the desk. |
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| less, fewer | In general, less refers to things that can be measured, fewer to things that can be counted.
The student had less free time, even though he took fewer classes. |
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| like, as | Like is a preposition that requires an object.
She plays defense like a pro. As is a conjunction that introduces a clause. She plays defense as the coach taught her. |
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| local places | Research Triangle Park, then RTP in subsequent references.
the Triangle, and eight-county region in the Piedmont of North Carolina consisting of Chatham, Durham, Franklin, Harnett, Johnston, Orange, Person, Wake. |
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| months, seasons | Months are uppercase, seasons are lowercase. Abbreviate all months with a date except March, April, May, June, July.
May 15. July 4. Feb. 13. Dec. 25. It was the summer of 1975. We worked hard all winter. Oasis first performed at Knebworth, England, on Aug. 10, 1996, attracting 135,00 fans. |
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| Mohammed | Preferred over Muhammad, Mahomet or other spellings for the founder of Islam. | |||
| mount, mountains | Mount is spelled out, mountain is capitalized as part of a proper name.
Mount Mitchell is in the Black Mountains. |
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| mm, mph | Do not use periods; abbreviate in all uses.
The White Lecture Hall has 16mm and 35mm film projectors. (Note: No space is used.) The campus speed limit is 25 mph. |
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| numbers | Spell out whole numbers below 10, use figures for 10 and above.
The department has 15 faculty and two administrative assistants. Exceptions: Ages: Dimensions: Percentages: Time: Rewrite: There are 70 students enrolled in the class. |
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| only | Make sure that only modifies what you want it to modify.
He only studies on weekends means that on Saturday and Sunday he does nothing but study. He studies only on weekends means that he doesn’t study Monday through Friday. |
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| possessives | Singular nouns add an apostrophe and an s.
Example: the team’s record. Exceptions: The AP Stylebook lists as exceptions singular nouns ending in s and followed by words beginning with s: the witness’ story, but the witness’s recollection Plural nouns add an apostrophe: the students’ grades Exceptions: Plural words used descriptively. a writers guide An apostrophe and an s are required, however, when a term involves a plural word that does not end in s: Duke Children’s Hospital, a people’s republic. Names ending in s, add an apostrophe: Charles’ dog Chameides’ staff Jesus’ mother Moses’ law For names ending in z and x, add an apostrophe and an s: Berlioz’s opera Marx’s writings Xerox’s profits
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| prefixes | most nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs formed with the following prefixes are closed (e.g., anteroom, neoclassical): | |||
| ante (antediluvian) anti (antihero) bi (bisexual) bio (biodiversity) co (coauthor, cooperate) counter (counteroffensive) extra (extracurricular) infra (infrastructure) inter (intercollegiate) intra (intrasquad) macro (macroeconomics) meta (metadata) micro (micromanage) mid (midcentury)(but: mid-Atlantic) mini (minibus) multi (multistory) neo (neoclassical) non (nonviolent, nonprofit) |
over (overvalued) post (postdoctoral) pre (prearranged) pro (proconsul) (but: pro-choice, pro-life, pro-American) proto (prototype) pseudo (pseudoscience) re (reunite, reexamine) semi (semiannual, semiconductor) socio (socioeconomic) sub (substandard) super (superego, superimpose) supra (supraorbital) trans (transoceanic) ultra (ultraconservative) un (unenthusiastic) under (underfunded) |
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| ranges | Use this form: $5 million to $10 million, not $5-10 million 5,000 to 10,000, not 5-10,000 |
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| religions | Anglicanism (Anglican) Baptist Church (Baptist) Buddhism (Buddhist) Catholicism (Catholic) Church of Christ, Scientist (Christian Scientist) Church of Jesus Christ of Latter- day Saints (Mormon) Religious Society of Friends (Quaker) Hinduism (Hindu) Islam (Muslim) Judaism (Jew) Eastern Orthodox churches (Greek Orthodox Church, Russian Orthodox Church) |
Protestantism (Protestant) Religious Society of Friends (Quaker) Roman Catholicism (Roman Catholic) Seventh-day Adventist Church Shiism (Shiite) Shintoism (Shintoist) Sunnism (Sunni) Taoism (Taoist) United Methodist Church (Methodist) |
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| religious holidays | Please use the following spellings: Ash Wednesday Christmas (and Christmastime) Easter Good Friday Hanukkah |
Holy Week Lent Passover Ramadan Rosh Hashana Yom Kippur |
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| Saint | Abbreviate in place names and the names of saints:
St. Paul, Minn.; St. John’s Newfoundland; St. Christopher Exceptions: |
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| schools and years | For external use, say, “Jones, a 1965 graduate of the Trinity College of Arts & Sciences at Duke, …
For internal use, our style for the school and class year of alumni is: School initial ’YY (use an apostrophe, not a single open quotation mark) (In 2024 and thereafter, we will have to distinguish between, for example, T’2024 and T’1924.) Trinity College T’YY Also: |
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| Scot, Scots, Scottish, Scotch | A Scot is a native of Scotland.
Scots are the people of Scotland. Scottish modifies someone or something from Scotland. Scotch is a type of whiskey. When the two words are used together they are spelled Scotch whisky. |
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| states, names of | AP now says to spell out states in all references.
He lives in Raleigh, North Carolina. (Not Raleigh, N.C.) |
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| that, which | That introduces clauses essential to the meaning of a sentence (and never set off by commas).
Duke is the university that James B. Duke founded. Which introduces nonessential clauses (always set off by commas). Duke, which was founded by James B. Duke, is located in Durham, N.C. |
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| time element | In external news releases, use the day of the week, not “today.”
President Vincent E. Price announced Wednesday … |
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| titles of books, movies, plays, etc. | Put quotation marks around the titles of books, movies, operas, plays, poems, songs, television programs and works of art. Capitalize the first and last words and all nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs and subordinating conjunctions (if, because, as, that, etc.). Lowercase definite and indefinite articles, coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, for, nor) and prepositions.
“Let Us Now Praise Famous Men” “It Happened One Night” “The Marriage of Figaro” “Death of a Salesman” “Ode on a Grecian Urn” “Just One of Those Things” “Who Wants to Be a Millionaire” “Adoration of the Magi” Exceptions: The Bible, the Koran, the Torah, Reference books, directories, dictionaries, encyclopedias, etc. Encyclopedia Britannica American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language Books In Print Names of newspapers, journals or magazines do not take quotation marks and are not italicized. (Note:“the” may or may not be part of a paper’s name. Check each publication to be sure. Websites are a good source.) The Herald-Sun The News & Observer The New York Times New York Daily News The New Yorker Science Nature U.S. News (with a space) was formerly U.S.News & World Report (no space). Its website is www.usnews.com. |
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| trademarks | The following words are trademarks:
Ace Bandage AstroTurf Band-Aid Scotch Tape Seeing-Eye dog Sheetrock Spandex Styrofoam Velcro Xerox (never used as a verb) The following are generic: aspirin cellophane escalator nylon pingpong (unless referring to the table tennis equipment made by Ping-Pong) rayon thermos (unless referring to the vacuum bottle made by Thermos) yo-yo (When in doubt, try typing the word into a search engine window. Trademarks often have websites, e.g., www.velcro.com, www.spandex.com. |
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| who, whom | Who refers to the subject of a sentence, clause or phrase.
The students who worked with tutors got high grades. Whom refers to the object of a verb or preposition. The students whom the tutors helped got high grades. |
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